这些差异是口译译员在翻译当中尤其要注意的，如果翻译不当会产生一些不必要的误会。译员要担当好桥梁的作用。下面我们看一些礼宾用语的中英文化差异以及译法：

一、 问候

    每个国家的问候语都是不同的，比如：有的中方主人在飞机场迎接外方的客人会说："欢迎欢迎，一路辛苦了。"我们不能直译为：Welcome. You must be tired all the way？在英语思维习惯上，是对满脸倦容的人要表示关切的话而不是打招呼的问候。按英语习惯可以这样说：You've had a long trip. 或Did you have a long flight？

    中文还有这样的恭维："您年纪这么大，身体还是这么健康。"说英语国家没有类似的表达习惯。在他们的文化里，人们忌讳直接说对方年纪大。 不能译成：You are old but still look so healthy. 这样不但没有丝毫关心问候之意，却使别人以为你嫌他老不死。这下可把别人给得罪了。可以这样译：You look great. 或You look wonderful. 在较熟的朋友之间可以说：Your health is good.

二、 称呼

    在书面语称呼上，对Dear Governor…或Dear Minister…这类身份较高的称呼上，通常不译为"亲爱的省长"、"亲爱的部长"这个Dear习惯用"尊敬的"。

"女士们、先生们、朋友们"中文听起来很自然，但在英语习惯里，"朋友们"通常方在女士们先生们之前：

Dear friends，

Ladies and gentlemen

三、 交际套语

    交际套语应该符合习惯用法才显得自然、得体、有礼，否则听起来就让人觉得生硬，粗鲁，甚至会造成误解。下面举一些典型套语的译法为例：

1、参观或者会谈等场合，常听见中方的人说"请多提宝贵意见。"若直译为：Please give us your valuable comments. 问题就来了：你的意见应该是valuable 的，不宝贵的意见请免开尊口。正确的译法是：Please give us your comments. 或We welcome your comments.

2、"怎么样，今天就谈到这里吧？"生硬、突然的说法：Well，shall we stop here for today？地道的习惯用语：Thank you for…Shall we call it a day？

3、"今天的菜不好，请多多包涵。"在英语国家的人看来，这种自谦客套的说法反而显得太牵强附会，况且请客总希望客人吃的好，否则，既然菜不好，为什么还拿来请客？故不宜直译为：Pardon me for the poor foods today. 若用餐开始讲这句话，英语应说：Bon appetite.或者Enjoy yourself. 若用餐完毕，则应该说：Hope you've enjoyed yourself.

这样才与此情景相吻合。

4、"这是区区薄礼，不成敬意"。这是我们中国人为了表示礼貌客气的一句客套话，有时礼品并非"薄礼"也这么说；而英美人的思维习惯却是：这是专门为你准备的礼品，希望你喜欢。所以这句不妨这样说：This is a gift for your memory. Hope you like it.

5、"你每月挣多少钱？"这恐怕是令人最忌讳的私人问题了，太敏感了。 若非要表达这个意思，应该把问题变为间接问题，不针对个人。若对方是销售经理，可以说：About how much dose a sale manager make a year？

    在做口译的过程中，除了要注意这些差异以外，英语作为一种语言它有着丰富的口语习惯词汇我们不能单凭字面意思去理解。比如：

----This evening，if you have time，we can go to the movie together .

----Well，I will play it by ear！

play it by ear-"用耳朵来弹奏"？ 不是！这里的play it by ear 英文原意是：to decide something at the moment you need to and not before. 因而这里的意思可理解为：

--"今晚如果有空，你可以和我们一块去看电影。"

--"到时候再说吧！"

    对有些词的理解不能望文生义，要挖掘其深层意思。例如：英文中就有child wife/husband一说，这个词就不能望文生义理解为"孩子妻子/丈夫"了，它的确切意思应该是"老夫少妻/老妻少夫"。还有这句话：This machine is the last word in technical skill. 其中the last word 就不好理解，原意为：最后一句话，最后决定权…但在这里应该是：（同类事物中） 最新形式，最先进品种。因而这句可译成：这台机器是技术方面的新成就。

我们在理解习惯语时，不仅要理解它的字面意思，还要理解它的习惯表达意思。例如：----"What are we going to have for the lunch？Fish，pork meat，beef steak，or bread？"

----" You name it！"

这里name字用作动词：命名，指定。我们可以整句理解为："你尽管说吧！"或"你说一个吧！"而不要译成："你起个名吧！"虽然英文里有这个意思，但中文这样就有一点别扭了。

丰富的文化背景和相关专业知识会有助于口译译员的临场发挥。但是扎实的语言基础才是关键。所以，我们要在平时的学习中要不断积累相关的专业知识，加强口译的训练，才能在现场口译中做到游刃有余。

胡锦涛主席在中非合作论坛北京峰会开幕式上的讲话（中英版）

尊敬的梅莱斯总理，

尊敬的各位同事、各位嘉宾，

女士们，先生们，朋友们：

今天是值得历史记住的日子。我们中非领导人本着友谊、和平、合作、发展的宗旨，相聚北京，共叙友情，共商推动中非关系发展、促进发展中国家团结合作的大计。首先，我谨代表中国政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，对各位同事和嘉宾前来出席会议，表示热烈的欢迎和衷心的感谢！我还要通过在座的非洲各国领导人，向兄弟的非洲人民转达中国人民的亲切问候和良好祝愿！

2000年10月，中非共同倡议成立了中非合作论坛。这是中非深化传统友谊、加强友好合作的重大举措。6年来，论坛先后在北京和亚的斯亚贝巴成功举办了两届部长级会议，已成为中国同非洲国家开展集体对话、交流治国理政经验、增进相互信任、进行务实合作的重要平台和有效机制。

Your Excellency Prime Minister Meles Zenawi,
Distinguished colleagues and guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Dear Friends,

Our meeting today will go down in history. We, leaders of China and African countries, in a common pursuit of friendship, peace, cooperation and development, are gathered in Beijing today to renew friendship, discuss ways of growing China-Africa relations and promote unity and cooperation among developing countries. On behalf of the Chinese Government and people and in my own name, I wish to extend a very warm welcome to you and deep appreciation to you for attending the Summit. I also want to extend, through the African leaders present today, the cordial greetings and best wishes of the Chinese people to the brotherly African people.

The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation was jointly set up by China and Africa in October 2000, a major initiative taken to promote traditional China-Africa friendship and cooperation. In the six years since then, two ministerial conferences have been held, first in Beijing and then in Addis Ababa. Today, the Forum serves as an important platform and effective mechanism for conducting collective dialogue, exchanging experience in governance and enhancing mutual trust and cooperation in practical terms between China and African countries.

各位同事、各位朋友！

今年正值新中国同非洲国家开启外交关系50周年。中国与非洲虽然远隔重洋，但中非人民友谊源远流长、历久弥坚。在漫漫历史长河中，中非人民自强不息、坚忍不拔，创造了各具特色、绚烂多彩的古代文明。近代以来，中非人民不甘奴役、顽强抗争，谱写了追求自由解放、捍卫人类尊严的光辉篇章，创造了国家建设、民族振兴的辉煌历史。中国和非洲的发展进步，为推进人类文明进步事业作出了重大贡献。

50年来，中非人民紧密团结，中非友好不断深化。中非各领域交流合作全面发展，取得了丰硕成果。中非在国际事务中相互信任、协调配合，共同维护发展中国家的正当权益。

中国始终坚定支持非洲民族解放和国家建设，从培训技术人员到培训各类人才，从援建坦赞铁路到援建各项工程，从派遣医疗队员到派遣维和官兵，都体现了中国人民对非洲人民的情谊。中国人民不会忘记非洲朋友当年全力支持中华人民共和国恢复在联合国的合法席位，不会忘记非洲国家和人民真诚希望中国完成和平统一大业、热切盼望中国实现现代化建设的宏伟目标。

Dear colleagues and friends,

This year marks the 50th anniversary of the inauguration of diplomatic ties between New China and African countries. Though vast oceans keep China and Africa far apart, the friendship between our peoples has a long history and, having been tested by times, is strong and vigorous. In the long course of history, the Chinese and African peoples, with an unyielding and tenacious spirit, created splendid and distinctive ancient civilisations. In the modern era, our peoples launched unremitting and heroic struggle against subjugation, and have written a glorious chapter in the course of pursuing freedom and liberation, upholding human dignity, and striving for economic development and national rejuvenation. The progress and development of China and Africa are a major contribution to the advancement of human civilisation.

During the past five decades, the Chinese and African peoples have forged close unity, and our friendship has flourished. China-Africa exchanges and cooperation have grown in all fields and yielded fruitful results. In international affairs, China and Africa enjoy trust and cooperate closely to uphold the legitimate rights and interests of the developing world.

In all these years, China has firmly supported Africa in winning liberation and pursuing development. China has trained technical personnel and other professionals in various fields for Africa. It has built the Tanzara Railway and other infrastructural projects and sent medical teams and peacekeepers to Africa. All this testifies to the friendship cherished by the Chinese people towards the African people. We in China will not forget Africa's full support for restoring the lawful rights of the People's Republic of China in the United Nations. Nor will we forget the sincere and ardent wish of African countries and people for China to realise complete and peaceful reunification and achieve the goal of building a modern nation.

今天，中非友好已深深扎根在双方人民心中。中非友好之所以能够经受住历史岁月和国际风云变幻的考验，关键是我们在发展相互关系中始终坚持真诚友好、平等相待、相互支持、共同发展的正确原则。

——真诚友好，是中非友谊不断加强的坚实基础。我们双方都珍视中非传统友谊，诚心诚意致力于中非友好事业。

——平等相待，是中非互信日益增进的重要保证。我们双方都尊重对方自主选择的发展道路，高度重视对方的关切，认真学习对方的发展经验。

——相互支持，是中非合作长盛不衰的不竭动力。我们双方都衷心希望并真心支持对方发展进步，积极开展全方位合作。

——共同发展，是中非人民孜孜以求的共同目标。我们双方都坚持互利互惠的友好合作，让发展成果惠及双方人民。

Today, China-Africa friendship is deeply rooted in the hearts of our two peoples, and our friendship has endured the test of time and changes in the world. This is because we have never strayed from the principle of enhancing friendship, treating each other as equals, extending mutual support and promoting common development in building our ties. 

- Friendship provides a solid foundation for reinforcing China- Africa friendly ties. We both value our traditional friendship and are committed to enhancing it.

- Treating each other as equals is crucial for ensuring mutual trust. We both respect the development path independently embarked upon by the other side. We both are serious in addressing each other's concerns and are eager to benefit from each other's practice in development.

- Mutual support is the driving force behind the ever growing China-Africa cooperation. We both wish to see progress in the development endeavour of the other side and sincerely support such endeavour. And we are engaged in comprehensive cooperation.

- Common development is the shared aspiration of the Chinese and African peoples. We are committed to pursuing mutually beneficial cooperation to bring the benefits of development to our peoples.

各位同事、各位朋友！

当前，国际形势正在发生深刻而复杂的变化。和平、发展、合作是当今时代的主旋律。世界多极化和经济全球化的趋势深入发展，科技进步日新月异，区域合作方兴未艾，各国相互依存不断加深，这些都为世界各国带来了难得的发展机遇。同时，全球发展不均衡，南北差距拉大，传统安全威胁和非传统安全威胁相互交织，影响世界和平与发展的不稳定不确定因素增多，广大发展中国家实现可持续发展面临着严峻挑战。

中国是最大的发展中国家，非洲是发展中国家最集中的大陆，中国和非洲的人口占世界人口三分之一以上。没有中国和非洲的和平与发展，就没有世界的和平与发展。

Dear colleagues and friends,

The world today is undergoing profound and complex changes. But peace, development and cooperation remain the calling of the times. There is a growing trend towards multipolarity and economic globalization. Science and technology are making daily advance, regional cooperation is deepening and there is increasing interdependence among nations. All this has created rare development opportunities for the international community. On the other hand, imbalance in global development, widening gap between North and South, the combination of traditional and non-traditional security threats as well as increasing factors of instability and uncertainty standing in the way of peace and development all pose a daunting challenge to developing countries in their pursuit of sustainable development.

China is the largest developing country, and Africa is home to the largest number of developing countries. Our combined population accounts for over a third of the world total. Without peace and development in China and Africa, there will be no global peace and development.

在新形势下，中非共同利益在扩大，相互需求在增加。建立中非新型战略伙伴关系是中非合作的内在需要，也是促进世界和平与发展的必然要求。中非关系不断发展，不仅有利于中国和非洲的发展进步，而且有利于促进发展中国家的团结合作，有利于推动建立公正合理的国际政治经济新秩序。为进一步发展中非新型战略伙伴关系，中国愿同非洲国家在以下领域加强合作。

第一，深化平等互信的政治关系。保持高层互访和交往势头，建立定期高层政治对话机制，开展战略对话，增强政治互信，加深传统友谊，实现团结共进。

第二，拓展互利共赢的经济合作。发挥各自优势，密切经贸联系，拓宽合作领域，支持双方企业合作，提升人力资源开发合作水平，积极探索新的合作方式，共享发展成果。

第三，扩大相互借鉴的文化交流。加强人文对话，增进双方人民特别是青年一代的相互了解和友谊，加强教育、科技、文化、卫生、体育、旅游等领域的交流合作，为中非合作提供精神动力和文化支持。

第四，推动均衡和谐的全球发展。加强南南合作，推动南北对话，呼吁发达国家切实兑现市场准入、增加援助、减免债务等承诺，落实千年发展目标，促进经济全球化朝着有利于实现各国共同繁荣的方向发展。

第五，加强相互支持的国际合作。维护联合国宪章的宗旨和原则，尊重世界多样性，促进国际关系民主化，倡导互信互利的国际安全合作，加强磋商和协调，照顾彼此关切，共同应对各类全球性安全威胁和挑战。

In this new era, China and Africa share increasing common interests and have a growing mutual need. The forging of a new type of China-Africa strategic partnership is determined by the dynamics of China-Africa cooperation, and it represents our wish to promote global peace and development. Building strong ties between China and Africa will not only promote development of each side, but also help cement unity and cooperation among developing countries and contribute to establishing a just and equitable new international political and economic order. To enhance this new type of strategic partnership, China will strengthen cooperation with Africa in the following fields:

First, deepen political relation of equality and mutual trust. We will maintain high-level contacts and mutual visits, establish a regular high-level political dialogue mechanism and conduct strategic dialogue to enhance mutual political trust and traditional friendship and achieve common progress through unity.

Second, broaden win-win economic cooperation. We will give full play to our respective strength, enhance economic and trade ties, broaden areas of cooperation, support cooperation between our business communities, upgrade cooperation in human resources development and explore new ways of cooperation so that both sides will share the benefits of development.

Third, expand exchange for cultural enrichment. We will strengthen cultural and people-to-people exchanges to increase mutual understanding and friendship between our two peoples and particularly between the younger generation. We will enhance exchanges and cooperation in education, science and technology, culture, public health, sports and tourism to provide intellectual motivation and cultural support for China-Africa cooperation.

Fourth, promote balanced and harmonious global development. We will enhance South-South cooperation and promote North-South dialogue. We urge developed countries to honour their promises on market access, aid and debt relief. We should strive to meet the Millennium Development Goals and steer economic globalisation in the direction of creating prosperity for all.

Fifth, strengthen cooperation and mutual support in international affairs. We are committed to upholding the purposes and principles of the UN Charter, respecting diversity of the world and promoting democracy in international relations. We call for enhancing international security cooperation based on mutual trust and benefit and addressing each other's concerns through consultation and coordination so that we can jointly respond to threats and challenges to global security.

各位同事、各位朋友！

中国珍视中非友谊，始终把加强同非洲国家的团结合作作为中国外交政策的重要组成部分。中国将一如既往地支持非洲实施非洲发展新伙伴计划，支持非洲国家为加强联合自强、谋求地区和平稳定、实现经济振兴、提高国际地位所做的积极努力。

Dear colleagues and friends,

China values its friendship with Africa. To strengthen unity and cooperation with Africa is a key principle guiding China's foreign policy. China will continue to support Africa in implementing the New Partnership for Africa's Development and in its effort to strengthen itself through unity, achieve peace and stability and economic revitalisation in the region and raise its international standing.  

为推动中非新型战略伙伴关系发展，促进中非在更大范围、更广领域、更高层次上的合作，中国政府将采取以下8个方面的政策措施。

（一）扩大对非洲援助规模，到2009年使中国对非洲国家的援助规模比2006年增加1倍。

（二）今后3年内向非洲国家提供30亿美元的优惠贷款和20亿美元的优惠出口买方信贷。

（三）为鼓励和支持中国企业到非洲投资，设立中非发展基金，基金总额逐步达到50亿美元，

（四）为支持非洲国家联合自强和一体化进程，援助建设非洲联盟会议中心。

（五）免除同中国有外交关系的所有非洲重债穷国和最不发达国家截至2005年底到期的政府无息贷款债务。

（六）进一步向非洲开放市场，把同中国有外交关系的非洲最不发达国家输华商品零关税待遇受惠商品由190个税目扩大到440多个。

（七）今后3年内在非洲国家建立3—5个境外经济贸易合作区。

（八）今后3年内为非洲培训培养15000名各类人才；向非洲派遣100名高级农业技术专家；在非洲建立10个有特色的农业技术示范中心；为非洲援助30所医院，并提供3亿元人民币无偿援款帮助非洲防治疟疾，用于提供青蒿素药品及设立30个抗疟中心；向非洲派遣300名青年志愿者；为非洲援助100所农村学校；在2009年之前，向非洲留学生提供中国政府奖学金名额由目前的每年2000人次增加到4000人次。

To forge a new type of China-Africa strategic partnership and strengthen our cooperation in more areas and at a higher level, the Chinese Government will take the following eight steps:

1. Double its 2006 assistance to Africa by 2009.

2. Provide US$3 billion of preferential loans and US$2 billion of preferential buyer's credits to Africa in the next three years.

3. Set up a China-Africa development fund which will reach US$5 billion to encourage Chinese companies to invest in Africa and provide support to them.

4. Build a conference centre for the African Union to support African countries in their efforts to strengthen themselves through unity and support the process of African integration.

5. Cancel debt in the form of all the interest-free government loans that matured at the end of 2005 owed by the heavily indebted poor countries and the least developed countries in Africa that have diplomatic relations with China.

6. Further open up China's market to Africa by increasing from 190 to over 440 the number of export items to China receiving zero-tariff treatment from the least developed countries in Africa having diplomatic ties with China.

7. Establish three to five trade and economic cooperation zones in Africa in the next three years.

8. Over the next three years, train 15,000 African professionals; send 100 senior agricultural experts to Africa; set up 10 special agricultural technology demonstration centres in Africa; build 30 hospitals in Africa and provide RMB 300 million of grant for providing artemisinin and building 30 malaria prevention and treatment centres to fight malaria in Africa; dispatch 300 youth volunteers to Africa; build 100 rural schools in Africa; and increase the number of Chinese government scholarships to African students from the current 2000 per year to 4000 per year by 2009.

各位同事、各位朋友！

中国和非洲都是人类文明的发祥地，都是充满希望的热土。共同的命运、共同的目标把我们紧紧团结在一起。中国永远是非洲的好朋友、好伙伴、好兄弟。

让我们携手并肩、昂首阔步，为实现中非发展，为造福中非人民，为推动建设持久和平、共同繁荣的和谐世界而共同努力！

谢谢大家。

Dear colleagues and friends,

Both China and Africa are cradles of human civilisation and lands of great promise. Common destiny and common goals have brought us together. China will remain a close friend, reliable partner and good brother of Africa.

Let's join hands and endeavour to promote development in both China and Africa, improve the well-being of our peoples and build a harmonious world of enduring peace and common prosperity!

Thank you.

关于听力应试方面，我们主张培养学生“抢读预测”+“五边处理法”这种眼、耳、手、口、脑并用的积极主动的应试技能。“抢读预测”即利用导言及题与题之间的间隙，提前扫视选项，预测出题方向，以便等录音内容开始时可以有目的地捕捉所需信息。“五边处理法”即边听，边理解，边复述(适用于单句、短对话和数据方面的内容)，边做笔记，边猜测(推断)。这里我们重点谈谈“立即复述”、“做笔记”与听的关系以及这“二边”的具体操作方法。

很多同学讲，“考听力时我都听懂了，可等到作选择的时候，却好像有一半都记不清了。”这是极正常的，原因是我们在听的时候，大部分注意力在理解方面，加上没有及时对所提细节做笔记，自然便会听了后面忘了前面，而听力测试的重点往往就在细节的辨识上。因此，考生不仅要听懂录音中的语言信息，还应通过一些有效途径在短时内强记重要信息，如年代、人物、事件、地点、单价、折扣价(幅度)、门牌号等。一个人即使记忆力再好，要记清如此多的细节也不容易，那么只有靠笔记帮忙。

(1)养成立即复述的习惯

记笔记是有诀窍的。在听单句(statement)时，由于句子完全孤立，没有任何语境，又只念一遍，听者只能靠一遍的理解和记忆，在选择项中找出意思与原文相同或相近者。因此，准确捕捉所给信息是问题的关键。这时必须借助“立即复述”这一有效手段，即：在听录音时以仅落后1─2秒的时间立即重复原试句，以帮助强化记忆，作出正确选择。有人曾作过实验，结果表明：“一个语言信号只经过外耳道，在大脑中理解记忆的可能性假设为一，那么经过口头复述，在大脑中理解记忆的可能性则为三。因为同一信号经过外耳道传入大脑，而另一部分声音则直接从口腔经过内耳道传入大脑，所以，复述一次的效果是不复述的三倍。”因而，考生在平时训练中很有必要加强复述练习，它一方面可以帮助你加深对听懂部分的印象，另一方面也有助于重新理解、咀嚼未听懂部分，从而有效捕捉并记录重要信息点，提高准确率。

“立即复述”关键在“立即”二字，若等到一句话念完了再去复述，就很难记清全句，复述也就失去了意义。正确的操作方法是：当一句话刚一开始，你就以仅慢1～2秒的速度紧跟其后，出声跟读，仿佛你的复述是原试句的回声，并在复述的同时进行理解并做记录。此法在教学实践中使用过多年，得到使用者的一致肯定。做复述练习的好处还不仅限于此，它还能帮助你增强信心，集中注意力，纠正发音，复述多了，还能培养语感，有助于口语的提高。

(2)学会做笔记

做笔记能帮助我们理解听力材料，提高区分有用信息和无用信息的能力。更重要的一点还在于它能帮我们减轻大脑的负担，完整而准确地把握所听材料的主要内容。

记笔记的方式可因人而异。你可以在选择项旁尽可能记下文中所提及的人名、地名、各种数据、事实和理由等你认为重要的信息。好的笔记应是对所听内容作出的简要提纲，可以用关键词，也可以用短语或句子来表示，关键是要简洁、明白、快捷。你也可以边听边快速核对A、B、C、D各项内容，用对错号加以标示，或针对不同选项就内容做简单笔记(后两种方法在对话部分较实用)。

例如：

W：I hope the library is open now．

M：Look at the sign．It says：9 a．m．to 5 p．m．weekdays﹔9 a．m．to 3 p．m．Saturdays﹔9 a．m．to 12 noon Sundays．

Q：When will the library be open on Saturdays?

A．From 9 a．m．to 5 p．m．(weekdays)

B．From l2 noon to 9 p．m．(×)

C．From 9 a．m．to 12 noon．(Sundays)

D．From 9 a．m．to 3 p．m．(Saturdays)

若能边听边对选择加以记录或标示(如上面括号中所示)，便可以得到正确答案(D)。

以下为短文听力部分的一篇样板笔记，大家可以从中体会做短文笔记的基本方法。

选择项：

A．At the new town swimming poo1．

B．In the schoo1．

C．At Jackson Sports Center．

D．In a university swimming poo1．

A．Because the place was too small．

B．Because the students wouldn’t be able to have lunch there．

C．Because it was raining．

D．Because the place was not available．

A．About 3hours．B．About 4 hours．

C.About 5 hours．D．About 6 hours．

A．To inform the students of the swimming competition．

B．To tell the students how to get to the competition ground．

C．To tell the students when to get back to schoo1．

D．To tell the students about the arrangement of the day’sactivities．

从选择项可以预测本篇的四个问题中前三个属客观性(或细节性)问题，最后为概括性问题，即：

Where…?

Why did… change the place of…?

How long…?

What is the main idea／purpose of…?(或Which of the following statelnents is true．)

因而，应以听细节为主，根据预期问题所涉及的方面做简要笔记。下面是对该篇所作的笔记：

A message for years 7─10(for whom)

new town swimming pool(original)

Jackson Sports Center(now)

rain(reason of changing place)

10：00 a．m．start off by bus(15 minute’s ride)

3：15 p．m．return to school

这样，当问题一一提出时，考生便可根据笔记轻松地作出选择： A B C D.